![]() In this study, we perform a qualitative etymological analysis of all previously postulated Proto-Indo-European terminology related to cereal cultivation and cereal processing. A central question, therefore, is how important the role of agriculture was among the speakers of this protolanguage. Questions on the Yamnaya and Pre-Yamnaya locations of the language community that ultimately gave rise to the Indo-European language family are heavily dependent on linguistic reconstruction of the subsistence of Proto-Indo-European speakers. Recent palaeogenomic studies support scenarios in which the core Indo-European languages spread with the expansion of Early Bronze Age Yamnaya herders that originally inhabited the East European steppes. Questions on the timing and the center of the Indo-European language dispersal are central to debates on the formation of the European and Asian linguistic landscapes and are deeply intertwined with questions on the archaeology and population history of these continents. 6C) are associated with >30% Eastern huntergatherer ancestry, and this includes not only Catacomb and Multi-cordoned Ware individuals from Moldova, adjacent to the steppe, but also from farther south, including two Yamnaya males from Bulgaria (Boyanovo and Mogila, the latter associated with Yamnaya burial custom and with the R-Z2103 haplogroup typical of the steppe Yamnaya) and one from Albania (Çinamak) belonging to the high-steppe ancestry group. ![]() In the Balkans, a group of six Bronze Age individuals from the 3rd millennium BCE carrying R-M269 (Fig. ![]() Haplogroup R-M269, which is inferred to have a shared common ancestor in the 5th millennium BCE, is crucial for understanding steppe expansions because it was the dominant lineage of the Yamnaya-Afanasievo group (4,8,34) in its 4th millennium BCE R-Z2103→ R-M12149 sublineage. ![]() ![]() The earliest individuals from the R-元89 clade belong to the R-P297 sister clade of R-V1636, including the hunter-gatherer from Lebyazhinka IV (8,9) and hunter-gatherers from the Baltic region (3), both without Caucasus hunter-gatherer ancestry, suggesting an Eastern European origin of this clade that would eventually give rise to the R-M269 clade that spread extremely widely in the Bronze Age. ![]()
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